• Center for Problem oriented policing

    Taxonomy of Wilderness Problems

    Threat category*Problem
    1 Agriculture and aquaculture 

    Annual and perennial (non)timber crops

    • Planting of crops for food, fiber, fuel or other uses  

    Livestock farming and ranching 

    • Cattle grazing / ranching in protected areas 
    2 Energy production and mining 

    Mining and quarrying 

    • Mining for precious minerals, sand, limestone, rocks, mud and other as well as exploration and development for the same 
    3 Biological resource use 

    Hunting and collecting terrestrial animals** 

    • Honey collection
    • Insect collection
    • Poaching for meat, bones, skin, fur (sustenance)
    • Poaching for meat, bones, skin, fur (cultural)
    • Poaching for trophy (commercial)
    • Poaching for trophy (cultural)
    • Poaching for pet trade (live animals)
    • Poaching for pet trade (eggs)
    • Poaching for breeding programs (live animals)
    • Poaching as retaliation for human-wildlife conflict
    • Poaching for traditional medicine/witchcraft
    • Poaching for animal testing
    • Poaching for excitement or thrills, aka thrill killing
    • Poaching for zoo collections or wildlife tourism
    • Sentinel poaching 

    Gathering terrestrial plants

    • Bark collection
    • Cotton collection
    • Flora poaching (e.g. orchids, cacti)
    • Fungi collection
    • Medicinal plant collection
    • Thatch collection 

    Logging and wood harvesting

    • Charcoal burning
    • Commercial timber extraction
    • Firewood collection
    • Pole harvesting
    • Pit sawing
    • Scented wood collection

    Fishing and harvesting aquatic resources

    • Coral collection
    • Fishing for protected species
    • Fishing in unauthorized area (out of season, without correct permit)
    • Fishing with outlawed equipment (i.e. nets with small holes, poison, electrical, nets, fish traps, spears)
    • Dam fishing
    • Destructive fishing practices (i.e. dynamite/grenades)
    • Overfishing quota
    4 Human intrusions and disturbance 

    Recreational activities

    • Off-tracking

    War, civil unrest and military exercises

    • Mine fields
    • Occupation
    • Troop and material transport

    Work and other activities

    • Destruction, moving or damaging of border markers
    • Encroachment***
    • Speeding (road kill)
    • Trespassing 
    5 Human-wildlife conflict 
    • Crop raiding (i.e. corn, rice, cassava)
    • Disease transmission
    • Retaliatory and fear killings
    • Human mortalities (i.e. caused by elephants, tigers, crocodiles)
    • Livestock predation
    • Problem animals (i.e. buffalo, baboon, elephant) 
    6 Natural system modifications 

    Fire and fire suppression

    • Arson for e.g. vegetation clearing
    • Campfires
    • Fire suppression to protect e.g. homes
    Dams and water management/use
    • Dam building
    • Wetland filling (e.g. mosquito control)

    Other ecosystem modifications

    • Vegetation clearing 
    7 Invasive and other problematic species and genes 
    • Introduction of invasive species
    • Introduction of unwanted native species or individuals
    8 Pollution 
    • Household, commercial or industrial waste disposal
    • Littering 
    9 Other
    • Attacks on enforcement or other protected area personnel
    • Burglary from lodges
    • Corruption – misuse/embezzlement of PA funds, bribery, taxation, protected area staff selling hunting rights, etc.
    • Drug cultivation and manufacturing
    • Emergency rescue of tourists
    • Human rights infringements (e.g. slave labor)
    • Illegal sale of protected area lands
    • Robbery of tourists, unsanctioned taxes or road tolls
    • Theft of protected area equipment (camera traps, vehicles, signage etc)
    • Trafficking (humans, arms, narcotics, other)
    • Vandalism

     * Threat categorizations partly drawn from Salafsky, N., Salzer, D., Stattersfield, A.J., Hilton-Taylor, C., Neugarten, R., Butchart, S.H.M., Collen, B., Cox, N., Master, L.L., O'Connor, S. & Wilkie, D. (2007). "A standard lexicon for biodiversity conservation: unified classifications of threats and actions." Conservation Biology, 22(4), 897-911. DOI:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.00937.x

    ** Each type of poaching can be committed using a variety of techniques for killing, detection and transportation Active poaching (finding and killing animal): professional gun, homemade gun, bow and arrow (poisoned arrows), dogs with spear, dogs with net, tranquilizer dart, spotlighting, vehicle (intentional roadkill), aerial (shooting from plane/helicopter), drones (used to scout), hunting platforms (illegally constructed) Passive poaching (laying traps for animal): snaring (different types of material for different animals), gin traps, pit traps, hanging spear trap, poison (i.e. water or food source), mist nets (for birds)

    *** Encroachment is the act of (gradually) infringing on protected area land to claim this for oneself for various reasons (perceived right, agricultural expansion, etc.)

    Conferences & Awards