Taxonomy of Wilderness Problems

Threat category*	Problem
1 Agriculture and aquaculture	Annual and perennial (non)timber crops Planting of crops for food, fiber, fuel or other uses Livestock farming and ranching Cattle grazing / ranching in protected areas
2 Energy production and mining	Mining and quarrying Mining for precious minerals, sand, limestone, rocks, mud and other as well as exploration and development for the same
3 Biological resource use	Hunting and collecting terrestrial animals** Honey collection Insect collection Poaching for meat, bones, skin, fur (sustenance) Poaching for meat, bones, skin, fur (cultural) Poaching for trophy (commercial) Poaching for trophy (cultural) Poaching for pet trade (live animals) Poaching for pet trade (eggs) Poaching for breeding programs (live animals) Poaching as retaliation for human-wildlife conflict Poaching for traditional medicine/witchcraft Poaching for animal testing Poaching for excitement or thrills, aka thrill killing Poaching for zoo collections or wildlife tourism Sentinel poaching Gathering terrestrial plants Bark collection Cotton collection Flora poaching (e.g. orchids, cacti) Fungi collection Medicinal plant collection Thatch collection Logging and wood harvesting Charcoal burning Commercial timber extraction Firewood collection Pole harvesting Pit sawing Scented wood collection Fishing and harvesting aquatic resources Coral collection Fishing for protected species Fishing in unauthorized area (out of season, without correct permit) Fishing with outlawed equipment (i.e. nets with small holes, poison, electrical, nets, fish traps, spears) Dam fishing Destructive fishing practices (i.e. dynamite/grenades) Overfishing quota
4 Human intrusions and disturbance	Recreational activities Off-tracking War, civil unrest and military exercises Mine fields Occupation Troop and material transport Work and other activities Destruction, moving or damaging of border markers Encroachment*** Speeding (road kill) Trespassing
5 Human-wildlife conflict	Crop raiding (i.e. corn, rice, cassava) Disease transmission Retaliatory and fear killings Human mortalities (i.e. caused by elephants, tigers, crocodiles) Livestock predation Problem animals (i.e. buffalo, baboon, elephant)
6 Natural system modifications	Fire and fire suppression Arson for e.g. vegetation clearing Campfires Fire suppression to protect e.g. homes Dams and water management/use Dam building Wetland filling (e.g. mosquito control) Other ecosystem modifications Vegetation clearing
7 Invasive and other problematic species and genes	Introduction of invasive species Introduction of unwanted native species or individuals
8 Pollution	Household, commercial or industrial waste disposal Littering
9 Other	Attacks on enforcement or other protected area personnel Burglary from lodges Corruption – misuse/embezzlement of PA funds, bribery, taxation, protected area staff selling hunting rights, etc. Drug cultivation and manufacturing Emergency rescue of tourists Human rights infringements (e.g. slave labor) Illegal sale of protected area lands Robbery of tourists, unsanctioned taxes or road tolls Theft of protected area equipment (camera traps, vehicles, signage etc) Trafficking (humans, arms, narcotics, other) Vandalism

* Threat categorizations partly drawn from Salafsky, N., Salzer, D., Stattersfield, A.J., Hilton-Taylor, C., Neugarten, R., Butchart, S.H.M., Collen, B., Cox, N., Master, L.L., O'Connor, S. & Wilkie, D. (2007). "A standard lexicon for biodiversity conservation: unified classifications of threats and actions." Conservation Biology, 22(4), 897-911. DOI:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.00937.x

** Each type of poaching can be committed using a variety of techniques for killing, detection and transportation Active poaching (finding and killing animal): professional gun, homemade gun, bow and arrow (poisoned arrows), dogs with spear, dogs with net, tranquilizer dart, spotlighting, vehicle (intentional roadkill), aerial (shooting from plane/helicopter), drones (used to scout), hunting platforms (illegally constructed) Passive poaching (laying traps for animal): snaring (different types of material for different animals), gin traps, pit traps, hanging spear trap, poison (i.e. water or food source), mist nets (for birds)

*** Encroachment is the act of (gradually) infringing on protected area land to claim this for oneself for various reasons (perceived right, agricultural expansion, etc.)